The Manchus overthrew the highly sophisticated Ming Dynasty in 1644 and were able to extend their reign for almost 300 years because they had mastered the Chinese philosophical and political system based on the Confucian sense of order.  The Confucian order resulted from a view of life which saw heaven above (t'ien shang) and earth below (t'ien sya), with the emperor as the son of heaven ruling everything under heaven with what amounted to a divine mandate (t'ien ming).  The emperor and his ministers, therefore, embodied the order that proceeded from heaven to earth, leading finally to the Great Unity (Ta T'ung).

The development of the use of mandarin squares, begun in the Ming Dynasty when both civilian and military officers were required to wear the insignia of their office, is an excellent example of design as a visible expression of the social order.  Under Manchu rule  these squares were worn on a sleeveless coat over the dragon robe.  Wives wore the same as their husbands.

Of the nine civilian ranks established in 1759 the college collection has six ranks represented.  One military rank is represented.  Less specific but nonetheless powerful in the ordering of society was the clothing befitting each class.  Persons of higher status were easily recognized by the color, rich fabrics, and amount of decoration on their clothes, and with this higher status came higher responsibility.

Photo:  Mandarin square, third military rank (leopard).  Silk and gold tapestry (k;o ssu), polychrome design on black ground 29.0 x 30.7 cm.  Hostetter collection 79.13.13

When the Manchus finally overthrew the Ming government in 1644, one way they established their own identity was by choosing court dress which reflected their ethnic origins.  Their familiarity with the silk dragon robes of the Ming Dynasty inspired them to continue the use of silk fabrics and the dragon motif.

The robes used during the Ming Dynasty and before had evolved from a long silk tradition in which strips of cloth were sewn together to form the robe with very little cutting or waste.  The robes were voluminous and suitable only for a sedentary life style.  The Manchus, on the other hand, were active people whose clothing had developed from the use of skins.  While silk and ramie were used for court clothing, the style of the garments came from their own tradition.

For the most serious of ceremonies, the annual sacrifices, the emperor wore the ch'ao fu, which in the early years of the dynasty was a pair of silk skirt panels worn over trousers and a belted hip-length silk jacket reminiscent of the leather coats of their nomadic past.  Dragons in specified numbers were an important part of the design.  Later the jacket and skirt   became one piece.  In the college collection is a single skirt panel with a waist band, a part of this early style costume before it became one piece.  Also in the collection is a collar (p'i ling), evolved from a fringed hood which had been an essential part of the Manchu costume. 

The ch'i fu or lung p'ao, commonly known as the dragon robe, became the semiformal dress.  The front of the robe overlapped and fastened on the right side as the leather prototype had done, replacing the center front opening of the Ming robes.  Narrow sleeves with horsehoof cuffs which covered the hand were used instead of the wide cumbersome sleeves of the Ming robes, making them much more suitable for people with an active lifestyle.  Another distinguishing feature of men's robes was open seam lines in the lower part of the robe at the sides, center front and center back allowing the wearer to ride a horse.  The robe was tightly belted in contrast to the Ming hoop-like belt.

Traditional Manchu women's costume consisted of paired skirts or aprons worn over trousers to give bulk.  A coat was worn that extended down to the decorative panels on the skirts. 

Photos: Bisemmetric embroidered panel, and close up.   Polychrome embroidery on cream silk; Pekinese stitch.  90.5 x 16.0cm.   Hostetter Collection, 79.13.07.

The dragon robe was a representation of the cosmic order of the universe.  The authority of heaven and earth were joined when the emperor took on the awesome responsibility of wearing the dragon robe.  The design of the robe itself is a dramatic statement of Chinese philosophical belief. 

The design elements portray components of the universe.  The diagonal bands at the hem and the bubbling curves above them represent water or the ocean.  The prisms are the four axes of the coat represent earth and symbolize the four cardinal points on the compass-North, South, East, and West.   Above are clouds symbolizing heaven and the dragon who has authority over all.   John Vollner states, "the human body became the world axis and the neck opening became the gate of heaven, separating the material world of the coat from the realm of the spiritual represented by the wearer's head." He continues, "When worn, both the coat and the courtier were transformed."

The development of the robe came gradually.   The first use of the dragon symbolizing imperial authority was probably as early as 100 A.D.  In 1759 sumptuary laws were passed regulating the use of the lung p'ao or ch'i fu, the semi-formal dragon robe.  The emperor's robe was bright yellow and had nine five-claw dragons (lung).  His sons also had nine five-claw dragons but with different shades of yellow or gold.  In addition, the emperor's robe had twelve impartial symbols, all of which related to the sacred task of performing the annual sacrifices.

First and second rank princes wore blue, blue-black, and black robes with nine five-claw dragons.  Lesser ranks had other colors and a diminishing number of four-claw dragons (mang).  Wives wore robes of their husbands' rank.

From at least the Chin Dynasty (1122-1234) the cloud collar was often worn with the dragon robe.  It was decorated either with dragons, symbols of power, or auspicious symbols.  The collar was at some periods simply woven or embroidered into the robe, and at other times it was separate from the robes.  In the late Ch'ing Dynasty the collar was simply a decorative accessory worn by Chinese women.

Photos:  Dragon robe (lung p'ao or ch'i fu), and close up, Mid nineteenth century.  Polychrome and gold embroidery on blue twill; couching and satin stitch.  Woven and braided gold trim.  Length-131.0cm.   Harris collection, 99.55.01.

   Neo-Confucianism provided the religio-philosophical base for imperial officialdom in China during the Ming and Ch'ing Dynasties, as it had for several previous dynasties.  Buddhism, while it was supported to some extent by a number of Ch'ing emperors, was weakened because it had become a part of the Buddhist-Taoist milieu making it difficult to distinguish one from the other.  Further, the elite Neo-Confucianists borrowed ideas from both Buddhism and Taoism.  Taoist and Buddhist beliefs and practices for a very long time had been a part of the folk religious tradition which was popular among the common people. 

It is perhaps because of this mixing of religions that Buddhist, Taoist, and Confucian symbols were all used  during the Ch'ing period.  These symbols were usually used in sets of eight.  The 1759 edict required "eight precious things" (pa pao) to be used on the dragon robes.   This term originally referred to the Confucian symbols but late in the dynasty was interpreted to mean three sets of symbols are combined on one garment.  Religious and philosophical stories were frequently illustrated on textile panels and served as both a decorative and teaching device.

Photo: Budhist hanging, Bodhisattva.   Polychrome and gold embroidery, couching.  143.0 x 84.0 cm.  99.60.11

Veneration of the ancestors, the main stream of all Chinese religion, requires that offerings to the ancestors be made regularly.  How can the ancestral fires burn without a son to light them?  Gifts incorporating symbols of many sons and fertility, as well as the double happiness character (shuang syi), are common for weddings.  Red is a symbol of weddings and birth.

Photos: Bride's coat, and close up.  Polychrome and gold embroidery on red satin; couching and satin stitch.  Length-79.0 cm.   99.60.51

Patterns of design have been incorporated in fabric structures in China since the Shang Dynasty and even before.  Skills improved as outside contact and trade occurred and technology increased; the fabric structures became more complex.  Traditions and symbolism governed motif selection so that new fabric construction often incorporated century-old motifs.

Bast fibers predate the use of silk filaments.  The bast fibers in the gauze robes of this collection microscopically appear to be ramie which was used as both warp and weft.  The fabrics included in this section are of the late Ch'ing Dynasty, but all of the construction techniques for the fabrics predate the Ming Dynasty except for velvets.  The Chinese were gifted weavers who are still a source of inspiration today.

Photos: Woman's coat, and close up.  Light blue satin damask trimmed in black satin.  Length 99 cm.  99.60.33.

The Chinese sense of design is seen as early as Neolithic times when most decorative elements were for ritual purposes.   According to Professor Cheng Te K'um in Archeology of China, embroidery was used to carry out these designs on clothing and textiles.  One of the   earliest examples of embroidery is from a Shang Dynasty (1500-1050 B.C.) fragment of embroidered silk encrusted on the patina of a bronze burial vessel.

A Chou Dynasty (722-221 B.C.) embroidered fragment indicates a high degree of sewing skill and weaving technique.  The simple bird and floral design is worked in chain stitch and demonstrates carefully worked out artistic devices for achieving balance and motion through placement of design elements.   Whether embroidered patterns were for religious significance or for aesthetic enjoyment, the silk filament with which they were worked, with its luster, fineness and continuous nature, made it especially suitable for surface embellishment using a needle and thread on fabric.